Trading System In Ancient Roma

1. O alvorecer da história As origens da raça humana são rastreadas dos antepassados ​​antropóides à revolução agrícola. 2. Os egípcios antigos A irrigação egípcia criou uma das primeiras grandes civilizações. 3. Os assentamentos da Mesopotâmia no Crescente fértil deram origem às grandes civilizações fluviais do Oriente Médio. 4. Desde Bronze até Iron Metals revolucionou as ferramentas, bem como as sociedades, nos impérios da Assíria, da Pérsia e da Neobliquia. 5. O surgimento da civilização grega A democracia e a filosofia surgiram das cidades gregas à beira do mundo civilizado. 6. Pensamento grego Sócrates, Platão e Aristóteles lançaram os alicerces do pensamento intelectual ocidental. 7. Alexandre, as grandes conquistas de Alexandres quadruplicaram o tamanho do mundo conhecido pelos gregos. 8. A Idade Helenística Os reinos helenísticos estenderam a cultura grega ao longo do Mediterrâneo. 9. O surgimento de Roma Através do seu exército, Roma construiu um império que moldou o Ocidente. 10. A engenharia civil do Romano Romano Romes contribuiu tanto para o império como as suas armas. 11. Cristianismo primitivo O cristianismo se espalhou apesar do desprezo e perseguição de Roma. 12. A Ascensão da Igreja A antiga heresia tornou-se a religião oficial dos impérios romanos sob o imperador Constantino. 13. O declínio de Roma Enquanto os inimigos cortaram as fronteiras de Romes, a guerra civil e o colapso econômico destruíram o império de dentro. 14. A queda de Roma Apesar do sucesso de imperadores como Hadrian e Marcus Aurelius, Roma foi vítima de invasões bárbaras. 15. O Império Bizantino De Constantinopla, o Império Bizantino continuou as tradições da Grécia e de Roma. 16. A Queda de Bizâncio Quase mil anos após a queda de Romes, Constantinopla foi conquistada pelas forças do Islã. 17. A Era das Trevas Os reinos bárbaros tomaram posse dos fragmentos do Império Romano. 19. A Idade Média Em meio à invasão e desordem civil, uma aristocracia militar dominou os reinos da Europa. 20. A Ordem Feudal Bispo, cavaleiro e camponesa exemplificaram algumas das divisões sociais do ano 1000 A. D. 21. Vida comum na Idade Média A fome, a doença e a expectativa de vida curta eram as condições que moldavam as crenças medievais. 24. As monarquias nacionais Uma nova classe média urbana surgiu, enquanto os casamentos dinásticos estabeleceram monarquias centralizadas. 25. O Renascimento e a Era da Descoberta Os humanistas do Renascimento fizeram do homem a medida de todas as coisas. A Europa estava possuída por uma nova paixão pelo conhecimento. 27. A Reforma expressada por Martinho Lutero, o protestantismo quebrou a unidade da Igreja Católica. 28. O surgimento da classe média À medida que as cidades cresciam, os novos costumes da classe média tiveram impacto na vida religiosa. 29. As guerras de religião Durante mais de um século, as brigas dos protestantes e dos católicos separaram a Europa. 30. O surgimento das cidades comerciais Em meio às guerras religiosas, algumas cidades descobriram que a tolerância aumentava sua prosperidade. 31. A Era do Absolutismo Esgotado pela guerra e conflitos civis, muitos europeus trocaram liberdades e anarquias anteriores por uma maior paz. 32. O Absolutismo eo Contrato Social Argumentos sobre a fonte legítima do poder político centrado no direito divino versus direito natural. 33. Os Inspetados Inspirados Monarcas consideraram reformas para criar sociedades mais eficientes, mas não à custa de seu próprio poder. 34. O Iluminismo As teorias intelectuais sobre a natureza do homem e seu potencial surgiram. 35. O Iluminismo e a Sociedade Os cientistas e os reformadores sociais lutaram por direitos humanos universais durante um período pacífico e próspero. 36. Os Filósofos Modernos A liberdade de pensamento e expressão abriu novas perspectivas exploradas por pensadores franceses, ingleses e americanos. 37. A Revolução Americana Os colonos britânicos criaram uma sociedade que testou idéias do Iluminismo e resistiu às restrições impostas pela Inglaterra. 38. A República Americana Uma nova república, o compromisso de radicais e conservadores, foi fundada em liberdades universais. 39. A morte do antigo regime Na França, a velha ordem colapsou sob ataques revolucionários e a fraqueza dos monarquistas. 41. A tecnologia da Revolução Industrial e a produção em massa reduziram a fome e inauguraram padrões de vida mais elevados. 42. O mundo industrial Uma revolução do consumidor foi alimentada por carvão, transporte público e novos serviços da cidade. 43. Revolução e românticos Os líderes nas artes, na literatura e na teoria política defenderam a justiça social e a libertação nacional. 44. A Era dos Estados-Nação As grandes potências cooperaram para reprimir as revoltas internas, mas competiram para adquirir colônias. 45. Uma nova educação pública pública e comunicações de massa criou uma nova vida política e tempo de lazer. 46. ​​Fin de Siegravecle A vida cotidiana da classe trabalhadora foi transformada por lazer, provocando o nascimento de um movimento de vanguarda de elite. 47. A Primeira Guerra Mundial eo surgimento do fascismo Os impérios antigos se desintegraram durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial para serem substituídos por ditaduras de direita na Itália, Espanha e Alemanha. 48. A Segunda Guerra Mundial, a Segunda Guerra Mundial foi uma guerra de novas táticas e estratégias. As populações civis tornaram-se alvos, já que o holocausto nazista exterminou milhões de pessoas. 49. A Guerra Fria Os EUA e a União Soviética dominaram a Europa e se confrontaram na Coréia. 50. Europa e o Terceiro Mundo Encarregado do legado do imperialismo colonial, o Terceiro Mundo apressou o desenvolvimento para alcançar seus homólogos ocidentais. 51. A Revolução Tecnológica Mantendo-se com o crescente ritmo de mudança tornou-se o padrão do dia. 52. Para o futuro A medicina moderna, a energia atômica, os computadores e os novos conceitos de tempo, energia e matéria têm um efeito importante na vida no século 20. O PRIMEIRO E OS DARK DAYS QUE OS BARBARES VEM - E A OBSCURIDADE IDADE Após a queda do Império Romano do Oeste, uma nova era começou na Europa e no mundo mediterrâneo. As antigas certezas da Pax Romana estavam em ruínas e, enquanto os imperadores do leste, governando de Constantinopla, mantiveram a luz da civilização romana, no oeste, que a luz cintilava e quase. Quase saíram. E assim começou o período da história européia conhecido como a Era das Trevas, quando fora das ruínas do Império Ocidental cresceu uma série de novos reinos sucessores, governados pelos povos bárbaros, geralmente germânicos, que o herdaram. Para os bárbaros, este novo assentamento foi o ponto culminante de um período de derrota, migração e conquista, conhecido como Volkerwanderung - o vagueamento dos povos. TRANSFORMAÇÃO DO MUNDO ROMANO: PAPEL DOS POBRES NORTE E GERMANICOS Bárbaros se chamam Bárbaros Ninguém se chamou bárbaros. Não é esse tipo de palavra. É uma palavra usada sobre outras pessoas. Foi usado pelos gregos antigos para descrever pessoas não gregas cuja língua eles não conseguiam entender. Os romanos adotaram a palavra grega e a usaram para rotular (e geralmente difamação) os povos que cercaram seu próprio mundo. A interpretação romana tornou-se a única que contava, e os povos a quem chamavam Bárbaros tornaram-se para sempre marcados e, claro, os babararianis tornaram-se um sinopse para o oposto de tudo o que consideramos civilizado. O Mito Erótico. Os bárbaros trouxeram apenas caos e ignorância, até que o renascimento reavivasse os incêndios do aprendizado romano e da arte. Quem eram os vikings em nórdicos, viking significa pirataria, e durante séculos, desde que os invasores vikings atacaram selvagemente o mosteiro Englands Lindisfarne em A. D. 793 - os vikings parecem ter sido pouco mais do que bárbaros de olhos azuis em capacetes com chifres. Mas as investigações arqueológicas de locais vikingos que se estendem da Rússia para Terra Nova revelaram um lado mais humano (se não totalmente humano) para o personagem viking. Entrevista com NOVA e curador de exibição em Vikings no Smithsonian. Explore uma vila viking. Segredos de navios nórdicos, diáspora. Escreva seu nome em Runes. Crie uma linha de tempo do Tree-Ring. Nova. Os Povos da Idade das Trevas Site abrangente que examina as origens de várias tribos da Idade das Trevas e sua batalha pelos restos do Império em colapso. A Idade das Trevas O período da história entre o declínio do Império Romano e o Renascimento conhecido como Idade das Trevas é uma era de superstição, guerra e morte. Por quase mil anos, os governantes de várias tribos em toda a Europa e Ásia chegam e recuam tão rapidamente como uma tempestade que passa, mas moldam a estrutura das nações para vir. A Idade das Trevas. Definindo a Escuridão Sua definição depende de quem a está definindo. De fato, os historiadores modernos não usam o termo por causa de sua conotação negativa. Geralmente, as Idade das Trevas se referiam ao período de tempo inaugurado pela queda do Império Romano do Ocidente. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE BYZANTIUM O chamado Roma. Uma grande cidade a caminho da Europa e da Ásia e seu vasto império que preservaria a cultura greco-romana e a transmitiria para o Ocidente, quando Roma própria estava de mãos bárbaras. Tornou-se o centro do mundo comercial e o foco do cristianismo. Constantinopla ocupava a função histórica como o posto avançado da Europa contra as hordas invasoras da Ásia. Sob o abrigo dessa defesa do seu portão oriental, a Europa Ocidental poderia reformar sua própria vida e dificilmente é um exagero dizer que a civilização da Europa Ocidental é um subproduto da vontade do Império Bizantino para sobreviver. Página de Estudos Bizantinos Uma das melhores páginas de Estudos Bizantinos. Um Gateway. Ouça a música bizantina. Cultura bizantina. Byzantium é o nome dado ao estado e à cultura do Império Romano Oriental na Idade Média. Tanto o estado como os habitantes sempre se chamavam romanos, assim como a maioria de seus vizinhos. Os europeus ocidentais, que tinham seu próprio Império Romano, os chamavam de orientais ou gregos. A natureza compósita de Bizâncio. Foi, sem qualquer dúvida, a continuação do estado romano, e até o século VII, preservou as estruturas básicas da cultura cívica do Mediterrâneo romano tardio: - um grande estado cristão multi-étnico, baseado em uma rede de centros urbanos e defendido Por um exército especializado móvel. A civilização bizantina constitui uma cultura mundial importante. Devido à sua posição única como a continuação medieval do Estado romano, tende a ser demitido pelos classicistas e ignorado pelos medievalistas ocidentais. Sua cultura de elite interna era arcaitante e talvez pessimista. Mas, como a cultura central e, de longe, o estado mais estável, do período medieval, Byzantium é de grande interesse tanto em si mesmo, quanto porque o desenvolvimento e a história tardia das culturas da Europa ocidental, eslava e islâmica não são compreensíveis sem levá-lo em consideração. Museu Metropolitano de Arte - Bizâncio: Fé e Poder, 1261-1557 Major, exposição notável. Antiga civilização bizantina - Recursos personalizados para alunos e curiosos Os períodos mais poderosos do Império Bizantino foram anos que estavam estagnados em termos de avanço do pensamento, mas eram altamente ativos em termos de religião. No entanto, não se deve esquecer que foi este um bordado altamente detalhado da Idade Média que abriu caminho para o Renascimento. A luta entre duas grandes religiões, o Islã e o cristianismo era levar ao desenvolvimento da civilização islâmica, por um lado, e a civilização bizantina, por outro. O MUNDO EMERGENTE DOS PALAVRAS E VÁLELAS CAVALEIROS E CHIVALRY O Código de Cavalaria Cavalheirescências, Cavaleiros e Sistema Feudal Os Cavaleiros Templários Quem eram eles. Uma ordem militar monástica formada no final da Primeira Cruzada para proteger os peregrinos que viajam na rota da Europa para a cidade recentemente capturada de Jerusalém. Dentro de algumas décadas, o grupo tornou-se uma ordem com o apoio do Papa e das monarquias européias coletivas. Dentro de dois séculos, eles se tornaram poderosos o suficiente para desafiar tudo, exceto o trono papal. Tem medo de guerreiros, respeitados por sua piedade e procurados por suas riquezas, não há dúvida de que os Cavaleiros Templários eram os principais atores das ordens de combate monástico. isto. The Steps of Knighthood Knight of the Roundtable A VIDA DE CHARLEMAGNE Carlomagne reviveu a vida política e cultural da Europa, que entrou em colapso após a queda do Império Romano do Oeste nos anos 400. Suas atividades estabeleceram os alicerces da civilização européia que surgiu na última Idade Média. . Carlomagno Coronação de Carlomagno como imperador vai além do conflito entre Igreja e Estado. É um evento simbólico, um ponto conveniente para reunir alguns segmentos separados. O formato de lista simples e agradável segue a vida de Charlemagnes e os aspectos governantes. Explica o significado cultural de vários eventos. Boa base e futuras referências. Bits de som de áudio. E quem era ele Carlomagno (742-814), ou Carlos Magno, era o governante mais famoso da Idade Média e figura-chave na história européia. Ele conquistou grande parte da Europa ocidental e uniu-o sob um grande império. Carlomagno - Sumário O império carolíngio começou quando os rivais estavam envolvidos em outros lugares. Descreve o caráter do regime carolíngio com limitações e soluções. Charlemagne recriou o poder, o prestígio e a cultura do Império Romano do Ocidente. As conseqüências da coroação de Charlemagnes tornaram-se uma das forças mais importantes da Europa medieval. Carolingians e After Rise of Dynasty Carolingian e apoio papal. Os charlemagnes reinavam com guerras em que ele geralmente era vitorioso. O mais importante - a conquista dos saxões e dos lombardos trazendo a maior parte da Alemanha e da Itália para os círculos do Sacro Império Romano e da civilização medieval. Declinação carolíngia e Divisão do Império a Louis the Pious. O Mapa de Carlomagno Charlemagne - Charles the Great, o rei dos francos e o imperador do Sacro Império Romano. Ele foi tão moderado no uso do vinho e de todo tipo de bebida que ele raramente se permitiu mais de três xícaras durante uma refeição. No verão, depois da refeição do meio-dia, ele comeria um pouco de fruta, drenava uma única xícara, adormecera as roupas e os sapatos, assim como fazia a noite e descansava durante duas ou três horas. Vida de Carlomagno. Escrito por Charlemagnes companheiro de viagem e monge, Einhard. A conta diária de primeira mão acrescenta mais um toque pessoal à compreensão de Carlomagno. Comente humorístico de consciência comentário de Einhard. Cronogramas, mapas, história por trás da Canção de Roland. Página de citações O estilo de feudismo foi a forma dominante de organização política na Europa medieval. Era um sistema hierárquico de relações sociais em que um senhor nobre concedeu terra conhecida como um feudo para um homem livre, que por sua vez jurou fidelidade ao senhor como vassalo e concordou em prestar serviços militares e outros. Um vassalo também poderia ser um senhor, concedendo porções da terra que ele segurava a outros vassalos livres, isso era conhecido como subinfeitório e, muitas vezes, conduziu todo o caminho até o rei. A terra concedida a cada vassalo foi habitada por servos que trabalharam a terra por ele, proporcionando-lhe renda para sustentar seus esforços militares por sua vez, o vassalo protegeria os servos do ataque e da invasão. A palavra F A definição comum. O realismo era a forma dominante de organização política na Europa medieval. Era um sistema hierárquico de relações sociais em que um senhor nobre concedeu terra conhecida como um feudo para um homem livre, que por sua vez jurou fidelidade ao senhor como vassalo e concordou em prestar serviços militares e outros. Um vassalo também poderia ser um senhor, concedendo porções da terra que ele segurava a outros vassalos livres, isso era conhecido como subinfeitório e, muitas vezes, conduziu todo o caminho até o rei. A terra concedida a cada vassalo foi habitada por servos que trabalharam a terra por ele, proporcionando-lhe renda para sustentar seus esforços militares por sua vez, o vassalo protegeria os servos do ataque e da invasão. O feudalismo surgiu numa época em que os governos centrais eram fracos ou inexistentes na Europa, e os reis usaram o sistema para exercer controle sobre seus assuntos e garantir a força militar em suas terras. Na ausência de uma monarquia forte e de um Estado de direito, a relação feudal entre o senhor e o seu vassalo era a cola que mantinha a sociedade medieval em conjunto. Mas e se nada disso for verdade. Bom exame. O problema Praticamente nada disso é exato. O feudismo não era a forma dominante de organização política na Europa medieval. Não havia um sistema hierárquico de senhores e vassalos envolvidos em um acordo estruturado para fornecer defesa militar. Não houve subinfeições que levem ao rei. O acordo pelo qual os servos trabalharam terra para um senhor em troca da proteção, conhecido como manorialismo ou seigneurialismo, não fazia parte de um sistema feudal. As monarquias do início da Idade Média podem ter tido seus desafios e suas fraquezas, mas os reis não usaram o feudalismo para exercer controle sobre seus assuntos e a relação feudal não era a cola que mantinha a sociedade medieval juntos. Em suma, o feudalismo como descrito acima nunca existiu na Europa medieval. LEIA NO ARTIGO. Feudalismo e instituições feudais O feudalismo é um método de governo e uma forma de garantir as forças necessárias para preservar esse método de governo. É também uma forma extrema de descentralização. Há muitos centros de poder. O poder não reside em um centro ou no topo, mesmo que haja uma estrutura piramidal em teoria, com o imperador no topo e o simples cavaleiro no fundo. Em outras palavras, o feudalismo é bastante mais complexo do que parece estar no papel. Na Idade Média, as redes de acordos pessoais constituíram a base dos sistemas político, econômico e social. A forma como esses acordos se desenvolveram e como eles foram utilizados durante a Idade Média precoce são atualmente tópicos de debate acadêmico. No entanto, no final da Idade Média, a terminologia e os conceitos que estão implícitos na designação de uma sociedade feudal foram definidos pela profissão legal. A Idade Média: Vida Feudal Neste sistema feudal, o rei concedeu bolsas de terra ou fiefs aos seus nobres mais importantes, seus barões e seus bispos, em troca do contributo dos soldados para os exércitos dos reis. No escalão mais baixo da sociedade estavam os camponeses, também chamados servos ou vilões. Em troca de viver e trabalhar em sua terra, conhecida como a demesne, o senhor ofereceu a proteção de seus camponeses. Feudalismo e Feudalismo Elite Militar - uma situação em que não há poder político dominante ou liderança central efetiva - nenhum estado ou império. Os líderes locais controlam as decisões políticas, dominam o poder militar, têm o poder econômico controlador e até dominam no domínio cultural. Em uma sociedade feudal, o poder é tratado como possessão privada, não existe um estado efetivo. O feudalismo é uma sociedade militar baseada. Na Europa feudal, o poder militar era a base primária do poder. Os líderes dominantes basearam seu status superior em sua capacidade de comandar essa elite militar. A própria cultura da Europa durante esse período era de natureza militar - um código de guerreiro. A cola que mantém a sociedade em conjunto não é uma lei escrita ou um sistema burocrático formal. Nem existe um sistema econômico formal que colapsa na ausência de controle político central. Em vez disso, uma série de relações sociais complexas unem a sociedade. Um mundo onde juramentos e obrigações, votos e promessas e expectativas e costumes estabelecidos proporcionam a única estabilidade possível. A lealdade aos outros e o cumprimento dos juramentos são os valores mais importantes em uma sociedade feudal. Se esses laços se quebram - anarquia. Terminologia feudal - O feudalismo não era um termo usado na Idade Média Mais de 130 termos feudais que fornecem um recurso essencial aos estudantes de graduação. Feudalismo, o sistema de governo baseado na propriedade da terra como foi praticado na Europa na Idade Média. Termos relacionados ao refluxo e fluxo da vida feudal diária, refletindo a pobreza e a brutalidade. As inscrições expõem com clareza luminosa a estrutura do poder na sociedade européia durante a era medieval. Referência abrangente para acadêmicos, intelectuais e estudantes. Inclui explicações de palavras e frases onde os significados mudaram ou perdem ao longo do tempo. Valioso parceiro online. Medieval Sourcebook: Crises Collapse Recovery Feudalism Breve parte sobre o termo feudalismo e o que é suposto significar. Os historiadores estão recentemente desafiando o uso popular moderno do termo, bem como o significado que os medievalistas profissionais do século XX chegaram a dar. Mais interessante sobre como olhamos para trás e tentamos explicar nossa história. Faixa de fontes originais. O Sistema Feudal O Sistema Feudal foi introduzido na Inglaterra após a invasão e conquista do país por William I (The Conqueror). O sistema havia sido usado na França pelos normandos desde o momento em que se estabeleceram pela primeira vez em cerca de 900AD. Era um sistema simples, mas eficaz, onde toda a terra era propriedade do Rei. Um quarto foi mantido pelo rei como sua propriedade pessoal, alguns foram entregues à igreja e o resto foi arrendado sob controles rigorosos. Bom resumo básico e grandes gráficos organizacionais. O que é um castelo Um castelo é uma residência militar devidamente fortificada. Por que os castelos foram construídos Inicialmente, eles foram projetados e construídos para manter o território conquistado. Eles também serviram para intimidar e atrapalhar os povos locais, eram lugares de refúgio e lugares para os senhores viverem. Eles também eram símbolos impressionantes do poder e da riqueza de seus proprietários. Terminologia do Castelo e do Cerco Definições em inglês para mais de 70 inscrições relativas a castelos medievais e terminologia de cerco. Univ. Mississippis Department of English referência clara e abrangente. Abrange os termos comumente usados ​​em estudos de graduação da história medieval. Inclui explicações de palavras e frases onde os significados mudaram ou perdem ao longo do tempo. Como era viver em um castelo? Uma vida difícil. As dificuldades eram abundantes, e até mesmo os indivíduos mais ricos se encontravam freqüentemente em lugares menos do que adequados. Não havia aquecimento central, com exceção da lareira central ou lareira, que tinha que ser mais eficiente. Claro, esse calor geralmente foi salvo para o senhor e sua família. Servos, soldados e outros feitos devido a pequenas lâmpadas e estremeceu muito nas frias noites medievais. Mesmo durante os meses mais quentes do ano, o castelo manteve uma umidade fresca e todos os residentes passaram o maior tempo possível desfrutando o exterior. Muitas vezes, os membros envolveram cobertores em torno de si mesmos para se manterem quentes durante o trabalho. Os banhos foram levados em cubas de madeira transportáveis, de modo que o sol de verão pudesse aquecer a água e o banhista. Castelos da Grã-Bretanha - Centro de aprendizagem de castelos O que é um castelo Um castelo é uma residência militar devidamente fortificada. Por que os castelos foram construídos Inicialmente, eles foram projetados e construídos para manter o território conquistado. Eles também serviram para intimidar e atrapalhar os povos locais, eram lugares de refúgio e lugares para os senhores viverem. Eles também eram símbolos impressionantes do poder e da riqueza de seus proprietários. Centro especial de aprendizagem do castelo, todos os principais castelos e informações sobre eles na Grã-Bretanha. Sobre castelos, vistas de olho de pássaros, construção de um castelo, desenhos, masmorras, comida, móveis, portões, imagens, King Edward l, cozinhas. Cavaleiros, Licença, Vida em um Castelo, Empregos Medievais, Partes de um Castelo, Torres. Castelos da Alemanha Os castelos que são hoje uma característica inconfundível da paisagem Rhein datam da Idade Média. Seus fundadores eram os senhores feudais, que, longe de apreciar qualquer noção romântica, construíram-nas com um simples objetivo em mente: proteger suas terras de majestosos e vizinhos predadores. Eles escolheram as cúpulas das montanhas como situações estrategicamente ideais baseadas na função guerreira para a qual foram construídas e no trabalho de restauração dos servos feudais. Roadtrip revista de castelos de Colônia para Mainz. Mapas, cronogramas, histórias, fotos, art. Mapa interativo do castelo de Heidelberg. Castelos de País de Gales e Castelos da Escócia Castelos na Web Pesquisar e visitar Castelos individuais de todo o mundo - da Áustria para a Iugoslávia. Palácios e grandes casas, abadias e igrejas, abadias e igrejas, castelos para crianças, livros, glossários, mitos e lendas de Arthur a Robin Hood. Para um castelo ou palácio para ficar dentro, você pode clicar para informações. O castelo medieval inglês - resumo apertado e fundo dos castelos da ilha da Britânia - fortalezas medievais da Grã-Bretanha Quando William, o conquistador e seu exército normando, invadiram com sucesso a Inglaterra em 1066 A. D, eles foram vistos pela população inglesa local como alienígenas. A ocupação normanda no entanto, estava destinada a durar séculos e não perderia tempo em introduzir os ingleses no feudalismo. Um instrumento-chave na aplicação do novo sistema feudal foi o castelo. Antes de 1066, a maioria das fortificações inglesas seguiam as linhas das antigas obras romanas e os burgueses saxões. Esses projetos públicos anteriormente ofereciam proteção geral a aldeias e cidades inteiras. A nova ordem exigia pontos fortes privados fortemente fortificados que intimidariam os civis locais em um papel mais passivo. Fotografias, explicação de velhos castelos normandos em York, Edimburgo, Windsor e Torre de Londres. Fiefdom medieval Bem organizado com tópicos sobre castelos em todos os aspectos. Interfunões, design, estrutura, salas, usos e o seige. Também a sociedade medieval com excelentes descrições em cada classe e profissão. Sociedade, pessoas, modo de vida. Castelo de Schoenbrunn - O grande castelo alemão. SANTOS, PECADORES, MONGES E SUAS MISSÕES O REALM MONASTAIC. O colapso do Império Romano levou a um período de instabilidade e invasões. Tanto a dinastia merovíngia franca (486-751) quanto os carolíngios (751-987) não conseguiram trazer mais do que períodos espasmódicos de calma política. Ao longo deste período turbulento, a Igreja proporcionou um elemento de continuidade. Como centros para estudiosos e artistas cristãos, os mosteiros ajudaram a restaurar os valores do mundo antigo. Eles também desenvolveram agricultura e viticultura e alguns se tornaram extremamente poderosos, dominando o país economicamente e espiritualmente. Safe Haven - Santo Agostinho Santo Agostinho foi um dos principais filósofos-teólogos do cristianismo primitivo e a figura principal na igreja do norte da África. Ele teve uma profunda influência no desenvolvimento subseqüente do pensamento e da cultura ocidentais, e moldou os temas e definiu os problemas que caracterizaram a tradição ocidental da teologia cristã. Conteúdo informativo da vida agostiniana e sua busca de uma religião razoável e plausível para a qual viver. Não foi até os 32 anos que Augustine finalmente. Convertidos ao cristianismo e dedicaram o resto de sua vida à busca da verdade. Suas muitas obras e ensinamentos. Escritos de Santo Agostinho Me dê castidade e continência, mas não apenas agora. Citações, cartas, doutrina cristã. Alguns links podem ser um pouco teimosos - mas, como diria Santo Agostinho, Paciência é o companheiro da sabedoria. São Bento e sua Ordem Um homem, cujo simples gênio permanece inalterado até hoje: Bento de Nursia. Não só ele era o pai dos monges ocidentais, mas ele foi chamado de co-patrono da Europa, junto com os Sts. Cyril e Methodius. Pelo simples motivo de que, através da influência de seus filhos e filhas espirituais, a civilização ocidental foi nutrida e preservada em grande parte. De fato, muitas das raízes cristãs da Europes foram plantadas direta ou indiretamente através do trabalho dos beneditinos, os monges negros da lenda que nomearam uma ordem religiosa após sua musa. Sinopse da vida de São Bento. Links para a Regra de São Bento e O Espírito da Vida Beneditina fornecendo comentários sobre as expectativas daqueles chamados à vida monástica. São Jerônimo Jerônimo (Eusébio Hieronymus), c.347-420, era pai da Igreja e doutor da Igreja, cuja grande obra era a tradução da Bíblia para o latim, a edição conhecida como Vulgata (ver Bíblia). Jerome era, por vários relatos, uma pessoa bastante mal-humorada, espinhosa e desagradável, que também não teve sucesso quando tentou a vida de um monge. No entanto, sua reputação de santidade disciplinada e bolsa de estudos bíblicos sobreviveu mais de 1.500 anos e deve ser de encorajamento para aqueles de nós conscientes de nossos próprios traços e hábitos pessoais desagradáveis. O céu é povoado não com o perfeito, mas com pessoas comuns que tentaram o seu melhor para amar a Deus e servir a humanidade. Monasticismo medieval. Não costumo incluir mais um curso de história neste livro em detalhes. Mas esta é próxima de brilhante, pela Dra. Deborah Vess, do Georgia College e University. As formas de vida religiosa no oeste medieval, as principais contribuições do monaquismo medieval para a cultura medieval e moderna e dos principais textos que governavam a vida monástica medieval, expressavam seus valores fundamentais e nos informavam sobre o patrocínio e a relação dos mosteiros com O mundo secular. Uma jornada juntos no deserto e através das vidas e dos ditos do deserto erem para explorar as origens do monaquismo a partir daí, exploraremos o legado do monaquismo beneditino, cluníaco e cisterciense e as novas ordens da Idade Média Central. Como a cultura européia foi formada e desenvolvida a partir das peregrinações de tais monásticos como St. Boniface, St. Columba e St. Columbanus. O grande medievalista Jean Leclerq descreveu uma vez a cultura monástica, como o amor da aprendizagem e o desejo de Deus, e exploraremos o legado de aprendizagem que surgiu dos mosteiros, bem como o impacto do lema beneditino Ora et Labora na Vida econômica, social e política da Europa. Mosteiro medieval O mosteiro medieval foi estabelecido durante a Idade Média. O primeiro tipo de mosteiro medieval aderiu à Regra Beneditina, estabelecida por São Bento em 529AD. Diferentes ordens de monges também foram estabelecidos durante a Idade Média. As principais ordens dos monges medievais eram os beneditinos, os cistercienses e os cartoes. Essas ordens monásticas diferiram principalmente nos detalhes de sua observação religiosa e com a estrita aplicação de suas regras. No século XII, quatrocentos e dezoito mosteiros foram fundados na Inglaterra no próximo século, apenas cerca de um terço. No décimo quarto, apenas vinte e três mosteiros foram fundados na Inglaterra. Monasticismo no cristianismo medieval O termo monaquismo (monachos, uma pessoa solitária) descreve um modo de vida escolhido por homens ou mulheres religiosos que se retiram da sociedade para a busca da salvação espiritual. Embora os mosteiros fossem proprietários de terras desde o seu início, no século X começaram a adquirir dons substanciais de dinheiro, preciosos objetos litúrgicos, terra e gado. Os mosteiros, por sua vez, proporcionaram um paraíso do mundo para homens e mulheres piedosos, bem como para os marginalizados que precisam de assistência. One of the major contributions of the monastic members was their achievement in scholarship, providing instrumental books about hymnography, hagiography, and theology. Monastic centers encouraged a fiercely intellectual environment, requiring literacy of brothers and sisters and creating major libraries. Important site. Early Medieval Monasticism The monks became the heroes of early medieval Europe for a number of reasons. They had clearly dedicated their lives to the devotion of God. Their lives served as examples for others. They also provided a sense of security in a world that always seemed on the brink of tumult and catastrophe. They founded an organization, the monastery, which allowed them to live communally -- some monks worked the earth, some copied and illuminated manuscripts, while still others read and studied. And, of course, because of their asceticism, the monks became the vehicles of economic and cultural change -- they helped teach medieval Europe to save and invest for the future. Of course, what the monks and their monasteries meant for Europe in, say, 800, meant something vastly different more than 700 years later when the Christian humanist, Erasmus, could write of the monks that they are so detested that it is considered bad luck if one crosses your path. Regia Anglorum - Monastic Life in Anglo-Saxon England Monasteries were places where men could go and devote their entire life to God. Most of their waking hours were governed by a set of rules, laid down by St Benedict in the sixth century. Since the latin for a rule is regula . they are usually known as regular clergy. In contrast, the priests were called secular clergy, from the latin saecularis . meaning of the world - in other words, they were not shut up in a monastery all the time. Monastic life was not easy. The Rule of Saint Benedict really does account for every hour of a monks life, with prayer and work. The work the monks initially had to do was first in the field, or building the monastery, but later the monks began the important task of copying and translating manuscripts. Their life was supposed to be spent entirely inside the monastery, with little contact with the outside world, as the following extract from the Rule shows: When brethren return from a journey, they should lie prostrate on the floor of the oratory and ask for the prayers of all for any faults that may have overtaken them on their journey, such as the sight or hearing of an evil thing or idle chatter. Medieval Monks How to become a monk, life in the dining room, the chapel, the scriptorium. See also LIFE HERE. and also Here. Life in a Medieval Monastery Monastic life was generally one of hard physical work, scholarship and prayer. Some orders encouraged the presence of lay brothers, monks who did most of the physical labour in the fields and workshops of the monastery so that the full-fledged monks could concentrate on prayer and learning. The day of a monk or nun, in theory at least, was regulated by regular prayer services in the abbey church. These services took place every three hours, day and night. When the services were over, monks would be occupied with all the tasks associated with maintaining a self-sustaining community. Abbeys grew their own food, did all their own building, and in some cases, grew quite prosperous doing so. Fountains Abbey and Rievaulx, both in Yorkshire, grew to be enormously wealthy, largely on the basais of raising sheep and selling the wool. Throughout the Dark Ages and Medieval period the monasteries were practically the only repository of scholarship and learning. The monks were by far the best educated mermbers of society - often they were the only educated members of society. Monasteries acted as libraries for ancient manuscripts, and many monks were occupied with laboriously copying sacred texts. CATHEDRALS, CHAPELS, CHURCHES, THE GOTHIC, GARGOYLES A Brief History and Introduction to Westminster Abbey Architectural masterpiece of the 13th-16th C. Westminster Abbey is home to innumerable tombs of English Kings, Queens and other famous persons. Every coronation since 1066, the Abbey is a living part of English history. Take virtual tour, visit shrine of Edward the Confessor and the Henry VII chapel. If youre interested in cathedrals, site is important. Churches in Brussels Part of the Belgium Travel Network, includes photosdescriptions of three of Brussels magnificent Middle Age Cathedrals. Gargoyles Then and Now What are these fantastic monsters doing in the cloisters under the very eyes of the brothers as they read What is the meaning of these unclean monkeys, strange savage lions and monsters-- St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Interesting compilation of blackwhite photographs of gargoyles, brief description of pagan roots, symbolic meaning and function in medieval architecture. Gothic Dreams Immersive exploration of gothic architecture. Part of wonderful Earthlore Exploration series. On-line photographic galleries, cathedral profiles and detailed cathedral design section will floor you (pun intended). Truly astounding, inspiring site. St. John the Divine - NYC - Pilgrimage to the Middle Ages The worlds largest gothic cathedral - and in NYC Take the excellent tour. A Walk Around Winchester Cathedral Quality photos illustrate well written descriptions of history of Winchester - once Englands capital - and the famous 800 year old cathedral. So well conceived it feels experiential. Welcome to the Virtual Sistine Chapel Michelangelo Buonarroti commissioned by Pope Julius II della Rovere in 1508 to repaint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel completing his work between 1508 and 1512. Clear, crisp graphics of Michelangelos exquisite artwork make up for the busy wallpaper. You could not get a better view if you were standing in the Sistine Chapel itself. THE CRUSADES Western Europes most ambitious common enterprise and its most conspicuous failure was the attempt to bring together all mankind in Christian unity under the leadership of the pope. The most intense part of this enterprise and the one that enlisted the most widespread support in Europe from all levels of society was the Crusades. The Crusades in the narrow sense of the expeditions to conquer and hold the Holy Land for the West began at the end of the eleventh century and lasted throughout the remainder of the medieval period. The Crusades 1 In a more inclusive sense, the Crusades include several other important contributing factors: The reconquest of Spain and Sicily from he Moslems The extension of the Christian frontier in the Baltic region to take in Lithuanians, Estonians, Prussians and Finns Christian missions to convert the Mongols and other Eastern peoples Concurrent with the Crusades was the effort to convert or eliminate the Jews within Europe that led ultimately to their expulsion from many parts of the West. The Crusades inspired the most dedicated valor, the most bloodthirsty cruelty, and the greediest vandalism of medieval men. They offered the fullest opportunity for combined fulfillment of Germanic heroic aspirations and Christian ideals of brotherhood and self-sacrifice. The Crusades 2 The Crusades were a series of campaigns against Islam and against heretics and troublemakers in Europe itself. They were lead by kings, princes, knights and papal legates as well as by shepherd and hermits on unique occasions. They were not always under direct control of the Church, a fact which caused much distress to a number of Popes. Different motives influenced those who journeyed to the Holy Land, and they were not always religious ones. The Church offered many incentives to encourage men to take the Cross. These included remission from sins, protection for the Crusaders families, freedom from law suits and exemption from interest on loans authorized by the Church. The Crusades, then, were more than just campaigns in a Holy War against Islam. Religious fervour was not the only motive and the actual Crusades rarely went according to plan. The initial idea of fighting for Christs birth-right gave way to combatting heretical Christians, pagans and evil rulers. The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade has been considered by many scholars the ultimate deviation from the original Crusading ideal. The failure of every Crusade after the First, the frequent degenerations into debauchery and drinking by members of the armies, emphasizes the abyss between the ideal and the reality of the Crusading movement. The inability to inspire commitment and establish a strong unified leadership or the strategy to defeat the Saracens on their own land, plagued each Crusade, dooming them to failure. Had those who organized them learned from previous mistakes, the result might have been different. Childrens Crusade of 1213 The survival of the Crusading spirit during the century is further shown by the extraordinary movement in 1212 which is known as the Childrens Crusade. This expedition which, of course, was not a Crusade at all in the strict sense of the term shy attracted thousands of children and young adults from northern France and western Germany to its banners. The Crusade was preached in France by a peasant boy named Stephen from a village near Vendome. In Germany, a boy named Nicholas from Cologne started the movement. The sorry business was summarized by a chronicler on this site. History of the Crusades - One Persons Point of View Rather aggressively strong analysis. Notwithstanding their final overthrow, the Crusades hold a very important place in the history of the world. Essentially the work of the popes, these Holy Wars first of all helped to strengthen pontifical authority they afforded the popes an opportunity to interfere in the wars between Christian princes, while the temporal and spiritual privileges which they conferred upon crusaders virtually made the latter their subjects. At the same time this was the principal reason why so many civil rulers refused to join the Crusades. It must be said that the advantages thus acquired by the popes were for the common safety of Christendom. From the outset the Crusades were defensive wars and checked the advance of the Mohammedans who, for two centuries, concentrated their forces in a struggle against the Christian settlements in Syria hence Europe is largely indebted to the Crusades for the maintenance of its independence. Besides, the Crusades brought about results of which the popes had never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all. Chronology of the Crusades The Crusades and the Rise of Islam Crusades in simple terms. Although somewhat simplistic, the crisp facts can be a helpful summary and review. Female Heroes: The Women Left Behind The effect of the Crusades on women left behind to fend for themselves was dramatic. The absence of a husband, son or guardian could be as long as 10 years. Then there were the men who never returned. It is reported that in the second and third crusades perhaps 500,000 were lost, a significant drain on the male Christian population. Medieval Sourcebook - Crusades Over a hundred links organized in chronological order take reader through all the crusades, orders, with access to translations of key speeches and documents. Emphasize the period encompassed by the first four crusades, but includes comprehensive information encompassing the entire segment of history. Siege and Capture of Jerusalem First hand accounts. Nasty, nasty stuff. Story of the First Crusade The First Crusade began on November 27, 1095, with a proclamation from Pope Urban II delivered to clergy and lay folk who had gathered in a field in Clermont, central France. His topic: an appeal for help that he had received from the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius I Comnenus. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Fascinating (and massive) 52-part account of history covering the years 1 through 1154 AD from the point of view of the Anglo-Saxons. This is the COMPLETE TEXT. And here: The Anglo Saxon Chronicle Brief History of Anglo Saxon England After the Roman Empire crumbled, before the Norman Conquest, Anglo Saxon culture flourished in England. Depth of Anglo Saxon influence on subsequent English culture. The Battle of Hastings The fight for Senlac Ridge on October 14th 1066 is probably the only battle date that most Englishmen can be expected to remember. Nearly a thousand years after the event, the memory of the resounding defeat of the last native Saxon King and his army rings down the centuries. But why did the battle take place Why did William the Bastard, Duke of Normandy, think that he had a claim to the English throne in the first place. Or was it just an adventure an enormous gamble that paid off and changed the course of world history in the course of an autumn day Battle of Hastings: An Account of the Battle That Altered World History To gain a clear understanding of why the Battle of Hastings occurred, you should be aware of the political and cultural histories of England and Normandy before the battle, the intertwined relationships of England and Normandy, the relationship of the English royalty to the Norman dukes, and, lastly, the principal personalities: Harold Godwinson, Duke William, and Edward the Confessor. Armed with this knowledge, it will be very apparent why the battle occurred and why it was inevitable in the context of history, as history developed. Full-service site. Battle of Hastings 1066 Story of the Battle of Hastings that was fought on the 14th October 1066. An event so significant, it totally changed the course of English history. To speak about this battle without recourse to the events that led up to it would be an injustice to the people of this island who have fought and died for her. What makes this event so important to the English is the fact that it was the last time any foreign power was to conquer her. Without doubt, a lesson was learnt that became etched into this island race for ever. Britannia Quintessential British site. Messy and hard to use but a catalog of great Web links. Articles, essays on castles, kings, popes, Wales, abbots, archibishops, British monarchs, cathedrals, King Arthur, documents. Britannias Narrative History of Britain The Anglo-Saxon Period. The Arthurian Period. Medieval Britain. From Reformation to Restoration and - The Age of Empire - First Rate Terse Historical Summarys. Britannica Sources of British History Repository of links to an incredible array of English historical source documents. St. Patricks actual Confession, in his own hand actual Magna Carta laws of William the Conquerer. Eyewitness accounts of battles, rebellions, heroes and villains. Compelling reading. Humanizes history. Britannia brings you the rich documentary history of England and Wales, so that you can begin to appreciate the foundation on which the present nation stands. Significant charters, histories, chronicles, accounts, laws and summonses. Magna Carta With the Magna Carta, King John placed himself and Englands future sovereigns and magistrates within the rule of law. Read about this charter of ancient liberties guaranteed by a king to his subjects. Translation of the 1297 version of Magna Carta. Sub-Roman Britain: An Introduction ORB Online Essay by Christopher Snyder. Britannia in the fifth and six centuries. William the Conqueror Reigned 1066-1087. Duke of Normandy 1035-1087. Invaded England defeated and killed his rival Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became King. The Norman conquest of England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment of feudalism under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges of service and loyalty. Back to Basics--A Series for Newer Ricardians Background, major events, and principal players associated with that period of English history - the Wars of the Roses, the fall of the House of Lancaster and rise of the House of York, the Royal Bastards, and the life, times, and reign of Richard III. Not Guilty--Again Three Justices of the U. S. Supreme Court find Richard III Not Guilty Following Mock Trial Oral Argument Held at the U. S. Supreme Court. On June 4, 1997, the Lawyers Committee for the Shakespeare Theater in Washington, D. C. sponsored a mock trial before three Justices of the U. S. Supreme Court and a large number of members of the Washington, D. C. Bar. Following oral arguments, Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and Associate Justices Ruth Bader Ginsberg and Stephen G. Breyer, in a 3-0 decision, ruled that the prosecution had not met the burden of proof that it was more likely than not that the Princes in the Tower had been murdered that the bones found in 1674 in the Tower were those of the Princes and that Richard III had and that Richard III had ordered or was complicitous in their deaths. The defense lawyers put on a good show. The result Go and see. Richard III - Brief Biography. Four months into his reign he crushed a rebellion led by his former assistant Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, who sought the installation of Henry Tudor, a diluted Lancaster, to the throne. The rebellion was crushed, but Tudor gathered troops and attacked Richards forces on August 22, 1485, at the battle of Bosworth Field. The last major battle of the Wars of the Roses, Bosworth Field became the death place of Richard III. Historians have been noticeably unkind to Richard, based on purely circumstantial evidence Shakespeare portrays him as a complete monster in his play, Richard III. One thing is for certain, however: Richards defeat and the cessation of the Wars of the Roses allowed the stability England required to heal, consolidate, and push into the modern era. Richard III Society Thanks mainly to Shakespeare, Englands Richard III (1452-1485), is known as the wicked, hunchbacked uncle who murdered his way to the throne. Site attempts to resurrect his reputation by exploring the events that surrounded his turbulent life. Uniquely English historic revisionism. Fun and surprisingly informative. Have an open mind and youll be surprised at your reactions. Nessie on the Net Scotlands first and official Loch Ness Monster Site. Includes webcam which updates every 120 seconds showing the most famous monster hunting location of Urquhart Castle. Also includes video streams of eyewitness interviews as well as a search Nessie search engine. The Monarchs of England Britannia Web biographies of the men and women who have ruled Britain since 802 AD. Listed by royal house, excellent articles contain genealogies, maps and links to prehistoric period and Roman period, Anglo-Saxons, Arthur, Medieval Britain, Reformation, myths and legends. Tudor England Did you know. that the population in Tudor England was over 4 million people in 1599. what government by seal means. what the 5 types of mental diseases were in the early Tudor medical opinion. where Sir Walter Raleighs head was kept for 29 years - after his execution in 1618 Simply click and go - the answers are at your fingertips. Tudors and Stuarts Great jump-off point to learn about Tudor and Stuart periods. The Tudor period begins when Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian, defeated King Richard 111 at the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 ending the War of the Roses. Monarchs, Protestant church beginnings, Bloody Mary, Spanish Armada, Elizabethan Age, Mary Queen of Scots, Civil War, The Restoration. Link to complete works of Shakespeare. The Housewifes Rich Cabinet: Remedies, Recipes, and Helpful Hints Have you ever wondered how Shakespeares contemporaries dealt with toothaches and other ills, with cleaning their houses and clothing, and preserving food If so, come explore the contents of The Housewifes Rich Cabinet . her medicines, perfumes, cosmetics, cleaning solutions, pest controls, and preserving hints, as they are recorded in 90 books and manuscripts of the 16th through the 18th century now on display in the Librarys Great Hall. Check this helpful place. Tudor Food Tudor Food and Drink varied according to status and wealth. In the early Middle Ages period meat was a sign of wealth. But as the population rose in Tudor England so did the improved agricultural techniques and inventions. The Tudor era also saw the introductions of different food from the New World, and continued to be influenced by the foods imported from the Far East, just it had during the earlier period of the Crusades. The Tudor era saw the expanded use of sugar. Increased cultivation of fruit trees and bee hives in England was also seen during the Tudor era increasing the range of foods available. The section and era covering Tudor Food includes sections on food in the Tudor times, food in Tudor England, Tudor food recipes and Tudor food for a banquet or feast. Tudor History A full range of material, and good stuff on Culturally and socially, the Tudor period saw many changes. The Tudor court played a prominent part in the cultural Renaissance taking place in Europe, nurturing all-round individuals such as William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser and Cardinal Wolsey. The Tudor period also saw the turbulence of two changes of official religion, resulting in the martyrdom of many innocent believers of both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. The fear of Roman Catholicism induced by the Reformation was to last for several centuries and to play an influential role in the history of the Succession. And then the Tudor Monarchs. Then to a BBC summary of Henry VIII. BAD THINGS HAPPEN TO GOOD PEOPLE THE PLAGUE The Black Death - Eyewitness Account The Black Death of 1348 to 1350 Effects the plague had on politics, culture, art, and economy. Brings to life the horror that came with the plague. The sensible thing to do when the plague struck was to get out of town, for people expected the plague would remain local. Aristocrats could do this because they had estates in the countryside. The poor, of course, had nowhere to go, so they remained and died. The bubonic plague did not go away. It still exists, everywhere in the world. It is quite common among rodent populations--rats, of course, but squirrels, rabbits and skunks as well. The plague is still very much with us. The Black Death The Black Death serves as a convenient divider between the central and the late Middle Ages. The changes between the two periods are numerous they include the introduction of gunpowder, increased importance of cities, economic and demographic crises, political dislocation and realignment, and powerful new currents in culture and religion. Overall, the later Middle Ages are usually characterized as a period of crisis and trouble. The portrait should not be painted unrelievedly bleak, but the tone is accurate enough and echoes voices from the era itself. The Black Death did not cause the crisis, for evidence of the changes can be seen well before 1347. But the plague exacerbated problems and added new ones, and the tone of crisis is graver in the second half than in the first half of the century. Standing at the centurys mid-point, the plague serves as a convenient demarcation. Bubonic Plague A. K.A Black Death How black death was transmitted, its symptoms, statistics, and medieval superstitutions treatments. Also the MACARONI GAME that gives an experience in the transmission of the bubuonic plague. (Good teaching tool for presentations and good resource for reports.) About 25 of the population of Europe was killed in the 14th century. Thats 25 million people - more than the total population of Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland, and Delaware combined. Disease killed three times more people than died in WWI. Before the 1300s, the Plague had been absent from Europe for almost 1000 years. After that time, Plague epidemics occurred almost regularly for 200 years. The Plague changed peoples attitudes about life, created new superstitions, and became engrained in folklore in Renaissance Europe. Churchs Involvement in the Bubonic Plague The Middle Ages marked a time of strong religious convictions, and it was during the Bubonic Plague that anger toward the Roman Catholic Church and the persecution of Jews intensified. The church played an important role in the lives of the people of the 13th and 14th Centuries, and it was forced to intervene when Christians demanded help. Maps of routes by which the plague was spread. Jewish History Sourcebook: The Black Plague and the Jews, 1348-1349 How and why the Christians blamed the Jews for occurrence and spread of the Black Death. Reported that the leaders in the Jewish metropolis of Toledo had initiated a plot and that one of the conspirators was a Rabbi. How some Jews were forced to confess, tortured, and killed. Plague Plagues devastated Elizabethan England. They were a constant threat to the people and the land. The most devastating to England was the bubonic plague. London was afflicted over a dozen times during the 1500s. he bubonic plague originated in Central Asia, where it killed 25 million people before it made its way into Constantinople in 1347. From there it spread to Mediterranean ports such as Naples and Venice. Trade ships from these Mediterranean ports spread plague to the inhabitants of southern France and Italy. It had spread to Paris by June of 1348, and London was in the grips of plague several months later. By 1350, all of Europe had been hit by plague. From this time to the mid 1600s, the disease was seen in England. Did you know that Elizabeth I, for example, had strict standards and guidelines enforced in order to protect herself and her court from contracting the plague virus. No one from London was allowed into Windsor Castle. Anyone trying to get in was immediately hanged. Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe Physicians, writers, poets, and chroniclers wrote about how the plague might have started and how it was affecting the population of Europe. Certain individuals were persecuted because it was believed that they infected the population with the Black Death. To gain a better perspective of the plague, look at all types of facets, science, religion, politics, and economics during that time. Good stepping stone in exploring the many faces of the Black Death. Plague-Proof Yourself and Your Family GREAT GUIDE List of helpful recommendations. One typical suggestion: Go forth barefoot in sackcloth sprinkled with ashes. Weep, pray, tear at your hair, carry candles and relics. Sometimes decorate yourself with ropes around your neck or beat yourself with whips. Yersinia pestis Bubonic plague has had a major impact on the history of the world. The plague has killed over 50 million people over the centuries. Scientific overview with microscopic pictures of Yersinia pestis and its manifestations, human symptions(warning graphic). Even thought it was small it had the power to almost exterminate the western world. INQUISITION AND HERESIES Historical Overview After the Roman Church had consolidated its power in the early Middle Ages, heretics came to be regarded as enemies of society. The crime of heresy was defined as a deliberate denial of an article of truth of the Catholic faith, and a public and obstinate persistence in that alleged error. At this time, there was a sense of Christian unity among townspeople and rulers alike, and most of them agreed with the Church that heretics seemed to threated society itself. Brief History of the Inquisition Full-scale summary by categories. The Inquisition was one of the great blights in the history of Christianity. No other institution in the history of the Christian Church was so horrible, so unjust, so. un-Christian. Theological foundations, targets, inquisitors, time-line. Catholics, Heretics and Heresy Members of different religions have generally regarded each other, at the best, as different but also, very often, as enemies. The people who deviated from one religion, those that we know as heretics in general, have been most of the time in History the object of repression. The main religions have not hesitated to use the secular forces to eliminate what they saw as their worst enemies, those coming from within and trying to change the system and put in doubt the leadership in place. And who were the enemies The Cathars, members of a definitely heretic sect - destroyed by the Church. The Templars, a true Catholic Order, accused of heresy, probably without any real reason , and suppressed. Inquisition The Galileo Project. Click on Christianity to reach the Inquisition. Informative background on how the Catholic Churchs permanent institution known as the Inquisition was in charge of eradicating heretics. How through the centuries the Church has dealt with the heretics. How the inquisition evolved through the centuries. The Spanish Inquisition Inquisition The use of torture is not confined to the Dark Ages or to any religious sect or government. The Malleus Maleficarum Published in 1486, the Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches) was the most popular handbook for Witch hunters during the great Witch craze of the 16th and 17th centuries. Indeed, until Bunyans Pilgrims Progress began circulating in 1678, only the Bible sold better Written by two German friars, Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer who were prosecutors of heretics in the Rhineland and Northern Germany. Although their own behaviour inspired protests to the Pope, in 1484 the recently elected Pope Innocent VIII endorsed their activities. The Malleus Maleficarum gave theological approval to every grotesque superstition concerning diabolism and Witches, and resulted in the torture and death of thousands of innocent people - particularly Women. The book addressed such questions as Why is it that Women are cheifly addicted to evil superstitions, and concluded that All Witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in Women insatiable. wherefore for the sake of fulfilling their lusts, they consort even with devils. The Medieval Inquisition Established in the early thirteenth century to combat widespread popular heresy, the Inquisition and its tribunals identified, prosecuted and punished heretics and their supporters. Seen as a symbol of religious and political intolerance against the Protestants, Jews, Catholic heretics and the political order of the Knights of the Templar. Presents the circumstances of the Medieval Inquisition and revisits the horror of the Church inquisition actions. While the church was accountable for the deaths of many, the townspeople also manipulated the Inquisition to their own advantage. When medieval people used the word inquisition, they were referring to a judicial technique, not an organization. There was, in fact, no such thing as the Inquisition in the sense of an impersonal organization with a chain of command. Instead there were inquisitors of heretical depravity, individuals assigned by the pope to inquire into heresy in specific areas. They were called such because they applied a judicial technique known as inquisitio, which could be translated as inquiry or inquest. THE MIDDLE TIMES MEDIEVALMIDDLE AGES WORLD The Camelot International Life in the middle ages was much, much harder than it is now. By 1200 AD life was more settled, but it was certainly not peaceful. Wars, crusades and peasant revolts. Plague, starvation, and great contrasts in living standards between rich and poor. Trade flourished and towns grew and prospered. New industries set up and luxury goods reached Europe from the far corners of the world. Skilled craftsmen built magnificent castles and cathedrals. Thousands of medieval buildings still standing, and many everyday objects. Medieval people wrote books and letters about important events. Marginality and Community in Medieval Europe - One of THE Most Important Essays and ESSENTIAL From the Introduction: From a scientific perspective marginality is understood as deviance from the norm. For our purposes this is a good foundational definition, but ultimately it falls short of expressing the myriad of issues confronted in the context of exploring marginality in Medieval Europe. In an effort to create a more suitable definition it may be more efficacious for us to work backwards, from the particulars to the abstract. By beginning with the groups which we have studied as representative of marginality in medieval society and examining the characteristics they possess--either in common or individually--we may thus arrive at a working definition of what it meant to be marginal in the Middle Ages. The groups which informed our study include: Heretics. Jews. Homosexuals. Prostitutes , Lepers. and Witches. (Naturally an argument could be made for the expansion of this list). In general we discovered that the above listed groups displayed evidence of precarious positioning with regard to indications of status. In other words medieval Jews, heretics, homosexuals, prostitutes, lepers, and witches were vunerable socially, politically, economically, and legally. Moreover, they tended to be associated with rootlessness or wandering. Defining the Middle Ages When did it start and end There is no consensus among historians Read on. Whats the Deal with the Dark Ages The Dark Ages refer to the early medieval period of European history that began with the fall of the Roman Empire. Specifically, the term refers to the time (476-800) when there was no Roman (or Holy Roman) emperor in the West or, more generally, to the period between about 500 and 1000, which was marked by frequent warfare and a virtual disappearance of urban life. Not much is known about this time period, other than the frequent warfare bit. Indeed, there was fighting and plundering galore during the Dark Ages, as dozens of roaming barbarian hordes (Goths, Huns, Vandals, Franks, etc.) competed for land and riches. The Not-so-Dark Middle Ages Darkness, famine, poverty and sickness are amongst the more popular words to describe the high middle ages. In a certain way this is true, but like all eras even the high middle ages had its ups and downs. There most certainly was corruption, civil war, famine and poverty but on the other hand the 13th and 14th centuries brought innovation and progress. The Bad Old Days - GREAT FUN Modern myths, hoaxes about the Middle Ages. The Medieval History Starter Quiz - TAKE IT Heres your chance to see how much you know The Middle Ages Net The Middle Ages stretched roughly from the fifth century to the fifteenth century. It began with the collapse of the Roman Empire and although Roman customs continued for a while, it was soon replaced by a system of running society called feudalism. Good areas of life in Middle Ages. Medival Europe - But the faculty got tired of doing it so site is dead. But I leave the description up KEY SITE WITH RANGE OF OFFERINGS. For several hundred years, from about the first to around the fifth century AD, Rome was the greatest power on Earth, ruling Britain and the countries around the Mediterranean Sea. However, in northern Europe, there were fierce tribes that were only held at bay by the Romans. Around 400 AD, the Roman Empire began to weaken and the northern tribes swept across the continent of Europe and plundered the city of Rome. The Roman Empire collapsed and was gradually replaced by many small kingdoms ruled by a strong warrior. For many years, Europe was without the luxuries and riches that had marked the height of Rome. Many centuries later, a new interest in learning would mark the beginning of the Renaissance. The thousand years between is called the Middle Ages or the Medieval period. This period began and ended for different countries at different times across Europe. It also affected different areas of the continent in different ways. The northern tribes did not stamp out learning completely, only momentarily set it back. The Catholic Church was already a powerful institution at the end of the Roman Empire and it continued to be the unifying force between the many small kingdoms that would become Europe. The Church salvaged much from the ruins of the ancient world and became one of the centers of learning during the Middle Ages. The people of the Middle Ages had a rich culture and produced many advances in art, literature, science, and medicine and paved the way for the ideas that would become the beginning of the Renaissance. To begin your journey into the Middle Ages, try to picture a world with far fewer people, where no one moved away from their hometown, and life moved at a slower pace. There was no electricity, no water from faucets, no television, and no cars. Imagine such a world to begin your journey into a land that was filled with real knights, castles, lords, and ladies. The End of the Middle Ages Good tutorial. Economy, Feudal Institutions, New Monarchies, Holy Roman Empire, Italys City-States, Eastern Europe, Ottoman Turks, The Church, Literature, Intellectual Life, Visual Arts, Music. Anonimalle Chronicle Acccount of Peasants Revolt of 1381 Fifteenth Century Life Many casual students of history today and most students of past generations thought of the fifteenth century in English history as a time when English folk had forgotten what was good for them politically, religiously, legally, and in most other ways. Such a viewpoint has become increasingly less tenable as researchers delve more deeply and with greater sensitivity into what was truly taking place in fifteenth-century England. 15th century life - cuisine, falconry, power and influence of medieval women. Life in the Middle Ages World Series of short essays by gifted resource students from Kyerene de las Brisas Elementary School. Many of the essays are illustrated by the children. Medieval Life - NET Daily life during the Middle Ages is sometimes hard to fathom. Pop culture loves to focus on exciting medieval moments-heroic knights charging into battle romantic liaisons between royalty and commoner breakthroughs and discoveries made. But life for your average person during the Dark Ages was very routine, and activities revolved around an agrarian calendar. Education, clothing, bathing, games, music, commerce, festivals, city and village. Feudal Life Good summaries. Then move on to great bits on the range of life issues. Life in the Middle Ages JUST GREAT What was life really like in the Middle Ages The life of all the classes was dominated by the feudal system - feudalism. What was Village life like during the middle ages Life in a manor and the Lord of the Manor during the Middle Ages. The life of women during the Middle Ages - peasants, lords, princess and Kings. The jobs and occupations dictated the quality of life during the Middle Ages and the medicine, entertainment and guilds of the Middle ages. Life in the Middle Ages also include an entertainment section providing the History, Facts and Information about the sports and games played during the time of Middle Ages. These subjects covered include Entertainment, Games, Gaming and Gambling, Bear amp Bull Baiting, Hunting and Hawking during the period of Middle Ages. When did Medieval people of the Middle Ages find time for entertainment, sports and leisure - the section covering religious festivals answers this question. The History, Facts and information about Life in the Middle Ages History have been provided in this section. Tales of the Middle Ages. True stories, Fables, and Anecdotes from the Middle Ages. Great stuff. Start with this idea: Contrary to popular legend, medieval man loved baths. People probably bathed more than they did in the 19th century, says the great medievalist Lynn Thorndike. Some castles had a special room beside the kitchen where the ladies might bathe sociably in parties. Hot water, sometimes with perfume or rose leaves, was brought to the lord in the bedchamber and poured into a tub shaped like a half-barrel and containing a stool, so that the occupant could sit and soak long. In the cities there were public baths, or stews for the populace. Medieval Life Wide-ranging survey of daily, domestic medieval life. Most informative sections discuss Contraceptive Methods, Rape in the Middle Ages, Manners. Eleanor of Aquitaine, iron working, witchcraft documents, prostitution, recipes, sexual development, the School of Trotula, famuli, marriage, love, beer. Many interesting brief vignettes. The Medieval Manor Manorialism is the other side of the feudal coin. You could say that the economic base of feudalism was manorial agriculture. The reason for this is to be found in the climate and the topography. Agricultural techniques were quite different in northern Europe from Mediterranean lands. It is no surprise that feudalism and manorialism never really developed in the south of Europe. In the north you could sow grain both in fall and the spring. so the work could be more evenly distributed during the course of the year. Because the land was much more fertile in the north you could have larger farms in the north than you could in the south. range of interesting stuff such as the The Moldboard Plow, as distinguished from the scratch plow, created a revolution in agriculture. It makes deep furrows and thus provides the necessary drainage for early use of the land. The moldboard plow was invented in Germany probably long before the invasions of the fourth and fifth centuries. It came into gradual use in Merovingian and Carolingian times in the area between the Rhine and the Elbe rivers. In the Romanized areas of southwestern Europe there were certain social obstacles to adoption of the moldboard plow. In these regions formerly a part of the Roman Empire, Roman conceptions of private property in land and slaves prevented the development of private farming. Also few individual farmers could own the necessary number of draught animals to pull this heavy plow. Get the rest of this story Manorial Glossary Over 144 terms defining ideas and principles of manorialism in the Middle Ages. Univ. Mississippi Department of English authored this comprehensive reference for academics, intellectuals and students. Indispensable reference tool for the study and understanding of manorialism. Includes explanations of words and phrases where meanings have changed or lost through time. The Psalter Map Although tiny, it contains a wealth of information. Helps us to understand how Medievals thought of the world surrounding them. Good Medieval Images and Medieval Macabre and Woodcuts - Collections of Art DISEASE, ALCHEMY From Miracles to Medicine - The Medieval Miracles of Healing Medieval Health Very Important Site. Superstition and ignorance reigned during the Middle Ages, a time when characters we now consider to be simply from fairy tales pixies, trolls, hobgoblins and so on, were thought to truly exist. Health was controlled by the stars, and affliction was a sign of impurity of the soul-a curse from God. Disease was a constant concern, as was infection from injuries. Hygiene was not always a priority and medieval diets were lacking in vital nutrition. Barbers doubled as surgeons, and a good bleeding was often the cure prescribed. Medieval science progressed slowly, and treatments for the sick were quite often out of reach, especially for the poor. But little by little, doctors were learning information that led to better cures, and understandings of how diseases were transmitted. Hospitals began to be constructed, and schools established for those wishing to practice medicine. Superstition remained, and medieval science certainly did not have all the answers. Information lost from the burning of the library at Alexandria by Christian zealots was slowly being rediscovered. Click on to Doctors, Medicine, Diseases. Ailments and Cures of Medieval Women During the Middle Ages, cures for many common ailments were both realistic and far-fetched to the point of absurdity. Take a look at a medieval birthing chair for example. A History of Western Medicine and Surgery One must wonder at the people and methods used in medicine in the Middle Ages. Their drives for health, long life, and freedom from pain seem much like our own motivations today, but their approaches and ideas on medicine and life in general were completely different. Let us look at our history of medicine, how it affected the people and ideas of the times and how it was affected by them. Mythical Plants of the Middle Ages Civilizations as early as the Chaldean in southwestern Asia were among the first to have a belief in plants that never existed, and the practice continued well beyond the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Museum of London: Exhibitions: Bedlam The infamous Bethlem Royal Hospital of London was recognised as the worlds first and oldest institution to provide care for the mentally ill. The Hospital became famous and notorious for the brutal ill-treatment meted out to the mentally ill. Take a look TECHNOLOGY, SCIENCE, TRANSPORTATION, BUILDING Technology During the Middle Ages Although the Middle Ages is known as a backward period in history, many inventions greatly changed the lives of the European people. Good list. Population Estimates Some interesting guesses. Medieval Technology Pages AstronomyAstrology The terms astronomie and astrologie are more or less interchangeable it was understood that the astrological condition of the skies affects the weather and influences the seasons and times for planting and harvesting (hence even today the Old Farmers Almanac provides detailed astrological information for the benefit of those whose labors may be affected by the skies. The Astrolabe - An Instrument With A Past and a Future The astrolabe is a very ancient astronomical computer for solving problems relating to time and the position of the Sun and stars in the sky. Medieval Science During the Middle Ages. the best scientists and doctors were not in Europe, but in the Islamic Empire to the south and east. Most of the science and medicine that people were doing in Europe was learning from Islamic scientists and doctors. The Crusades. by sending a lot of Europeans to go live in West Asia for a while, helped to spread Islamic science to Europe. Med ieval Transportation - Pictures of Population Estimates - Approximate Population for Parts of Europe Peasant Houses - THE Best Article It seems clear that peasants did not live with their animals out of choice, but rather because structures like the long house were the economic solution to a problem. More prosperous peasants built separate barns for their animals, placing the barn at right angles to the house to emphasize the distinction. Medieval Houses The only Medieval houses that survive today are those of the wealthy. They have survived because they were made of stone. Look at the reconstruction of peasant homes. Medieval Towns and Villages - The Ideal Site Plus how to construct one, what to look for. Also on site, info about farming, the manor, food, clothing, houses. Simple but great. Medieval English Towns - Historical Information Fortified Manors Wharram Percy - The Lost Medieval Village Castle Privies A privy is a medieval name for latrine. Dê uma olhada. Fortifications, and Buildings Town wall, pesants house, great hall, kitchen, towers, prison What Was It Really Like to Live int he Middle Ages - GREAT SITE - Keep Clicking Read on, even to garbage and disposal. FAIRS, GAMES, MUSIC A History of Traditional Games Nice job of placing each game within its historical context, and it covers a very wide range of games. Medieval Music - Try Your Luck As A Medieval Musician Listen to the sound of a medieval instrument and then try to determine which instrument, from those pictured, made that sound. SOCIAL LIFE, WORK, AND CULTURE - AND THE ORDINARY Period Movies Footwear of the Middle Ages By far what we know about shoes and shoemaking in the Middle Ages is surpassed by what we dont know. When it comes down to making any of the designs in this work, remember that all we have to work from are illustrations, which may only be artistic interpretations and those shoes that have been excavated archaeologically, which at best represent slender visions into the techniques of manufacture, and highly limited examples of styles. It is as if someone was trying to reconstruct 20th C. shoe styles and manufacture techniques from photographs and ads in GQ and Vogue, and a large pile of half-rotten Tennis Shoes and one or two Cowboy Boots. - Enormous site Tons of info on the Medieval shoe. Lots of graphics. Le Poulet Gauche: A Guide to 16th Century France Guide to daily life in 16th century France. Created by a group dedicated to the recreation of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Le Poulet Gauche is an actual tavern in France Includes pages on history and politics, society and culture, tavern life, entertainment, as well as everyday life. Beautiful images and paintings Medieval Jobs One would expect the Middle Ages to have been a simple time, with few truly distinctive occupations, save the lord of the manor, his knights, his household, and the peasants. But, the complexity of the medieval working world is startling. Yes, the above are typical occupations of the age, but within these broad classifications we can define an incredible array of other occupations. True, medieval jobs were not all fulfilling or stepping stones to success and status, as we envision the knights position in the lords court but. Read up on what folks actually did all day. And Medieval Occupations . The History of Plumbing - Roman and English Legacy Harbored in the palace latrine was the worlds first flushing water closet or toilet, with a wooden seat and a small reservoir of water. The device, however, was lost for thousands of years amid the rubble of flood and decay. Not until the 16th Century would Sir John Harington invent a washout closet anew, similar in principle. And it would take still another 200 years before another Englishman, Alexander Cumming, would patent the forerunner of the toilet used today. The luminous names of Doulton, Wedgwood, Shanks, and Twyford would follow. Informative to say the least. MEDIEVAL ECONOMICS, TRADE, FARMING, LAW AND CRIME Medieval Farming Farms were much smaller then and the peasants who worked the land did not own the land they worked on. This belonged to the lord of the manor. In this sense, peasants were simply tenants who worked a strip of land or maybe several strips. Hence why farming was called strip farming in Medieval times. This reliance on the local lord of the manor was all part of the feudal system. A peasant family was unlikely to be able to own that most valuable of farming animals an ox. An ox or horse was known as a beast of burden as it could do a great deal of work that people would have found impossible to do. A team of oxen at ploughing time was vital and a village might club together to buy one or two and then use them on a rota basis. In fact, villagers frequently helped one another to ensure the vital farming work got done. This was especially true at ploughing time, seeding time and harvesting. Farming in the Middle Ages - How it Really Worked Tales of Justice and Vengeance in the Medieval World All raise issues that currently resonate in radical legal scholarship. The Clauses of the Magna Carta Women and the Rules of Law It happens that the examination of what women can or cannot do is an excellent index for evaluating late twelfth century law as such. For dower, think about the appropriateness of the various jurisdictions and the demands of loyalty. Medieval Economics Medieval Law and Order Law and order was very harsh in Medieval England. Those in charge of law and order believed that people would only learn how to behave properly if they feared what would happen to them if they broke the law. Even the smallest offences had serious punishments. The authorities feared the poor simply because there were many more poor than rich and any revolt could be potentially damaging - as the Peasants Revolt of 1381 proved. Medieval Trade Units Crime, Prevention, Punishment Before 1450 - Good National Archives Site Were the Middle Ages lawless and violent Who was responsible for crime prevention in Medieval England What were the purposes of punishments given by courts in the Middle Ages MEDIEVAL FOOD, DRINK, COOKERY Food and Drink - Great Place to Start Ale and Brewing in the Medieval Times ( MedievalRenaissance Brewing Homepage ) If youre an Ale drinker or simply interested in its history, this site provides it all. Ale. the drink of choice in England throughout the medieval period. Since ale was basic to the diet of ordinary people, each household required a large and steady supply a household of five people might require about 1 14 gallons a day, or about 8 34 gallons a week. Virtually everyone drank ale for nutritional purposes. Mead was another alcoholic beverage made by the fermentation of honey and water. By varying the proportions of honey and water and the point at which fermentation is stopped, a wide variety of types can be produced ranging from a very dry and light, to sweet and heavy-bodied. Until the late middle ages meads were highly popular beverages. The guilds controlled all aspects of the trade and productionof ale, mead and only toward the end of the 16th-century wines. Recipes, articles, newsletters, biographies, and even a mailing list for Ale connoisseurs. A Boke of Gode Cookery Medieval cooking was not, as is so easily assumed today, a dubious practice that produced inedible dishes filled with strange spices and dangerous ingredients. Medieval cooks used many of the same type of foodstuffs that are in use today, in addition to forms of food preparation that would be familar to any of us. The dishes and recipes they prepared were neither inedible nor dangerous, but extremely delicious and tasty products that employed the finest meats, grains, fruits, and vegetables. Then as now, mankind knew what tasted good, and the sauces, stews, pies, roasts, and soups that satisfied the 14th c. family are just as wholesome and enjoyable today. Awesome, award-winning page with Medieval and other historical unusual recipes. Especially good because recipes have been adapted for modern times. Everything from beverages to desserts. Explains Four Humour food philosophy. Chaucerian relations to foods with a glossary of where foods are found in The Canterbury Tales. Cooking Glossary Savory selection of over 70 entries pertaining to Medieval cooking and food preparation. Provides insight into medieval food practices. Includes enticing descriptions of herbs, spices and other Medieval delicacies. Dining in State: A High Cuisine Guide Wonderful site. Information obtained from actual Middle Ages cook books Interesting and thoughtful, contains insights as to how each class ate, how food was obtained, prepared, and served. Order of courses served in the kings presence. Medieval etiquette, with such taboos as scratching your head at the table Food in the Castle Eating was one of the castle dwellers most popular pastimes, for not only did food provide needed sustenance, it was a means of entertainment. In particular, the banquet was used to impress a lords guests with his generosity and his wealth. Robert Dudleys 19-day festival of fun and feasting in honor of Queen Elizabeth is perhaps the most notorious of all, and the masses of food consumed are staggering by our modern, weight-conscious standard. Leia. Food, Drink and Cookery in Medieval Society The Food Heritage Press is your first stop on the internet for scholarly works on food and culinary topics during the Middle Ages. Online bookseller with links to pages on medieval cooking. Virtual handbook of food taken from Platinas original manuscript. MedievalRenaissance Food Homepage How to Pig Out With 130 of Your Closest Friends Robbing Peter to Pay Paul: Halving Feast Costs Camping Without a Cooler and A Hitchhikers Guide to Ancient Cookery -- where else would you find information like this. From the Renaissance Food Bibliography to a variety of articles and publications of this era. Also includes individual recipes. WOMEN, MEN, MARRIAGE, CHILDREN IN THE MIDDLE PERIOD The Enduring Popularity of Courtly Love Lauded by nobility and idolized by troubadours, the ideal of pure love (which included strongly self-deprecating behavior and servitude by a man for a distant, unattainable woman) was a driving force throughout high period of medieval love literature. From 1100 to 1300, the language of lady love prevailed in the courts of England and Europe. Read about this interesting concept of romantic love rising to a higher plane and transforming the life of the giver for the sake of the receiver. And then this good info for Backgrounds of Romance - Courtly Love. Love, Romance, Marriage and Women - in Medieval Times Great series, work and play, games, fun. Not all was gloomy. Start with PART ONE and continue from there. Dominion and Domination of the Gentler Sex: The Lives of Medeval Women - SPECIAL SITE They were wives and writers, lovers and soldiers, mothers and midwives, scientists and traders. The day-to-day lives of medieval women of all classes and callings are often glossed over in modern history courses in favor of sequences of events. Not so here. This is the CITY OF WOMEN. Highlights the roles, so often invisible, of medieval women. So how much DO you know about medieval women Take the quiz and find out. VISIT THE CITY Take a tour to examine the roles -- predictable and unexpected -- of medieval women. Inside a medieval walled city. noisy and smelly. Streets were pitch-black at night and watchmen and thieves patrolled the streets. THE DISTAFF SIDE: Women and the circumstances of birth, childhood, marriage, and death. THE MARKETPLACE and THE ARMORY: Women were invaluable to medieval economics. Focus on women in businesses of all sizes. AND Medieval women were soldiers long before the WAACs. Whether as defenders, commanders, or mercenaries, women made their mark on medieval warfare. THREADNEEDLE STREET and THE APOTHECARY: The fashion center of the City of Women. Here you can see fashion hits from the 11th to the 14th Centuries as well as the latest from the 15th. Information on medicine, science, and witchcraft. THE ARTS: From famous writers to nameless actors, many contributors to the medieval art scene were women, who created literature, music, theatre, dance, and visual art. BIOGRAPHIES: General information about the lives of medieval women in various occupations Joan of Arc (Jeanne dArc) Archive Joan of Arc Archive is an online collection of information, both general and scholarly, concerning Joan of Arc Jehanne dArc or Darc in medieval French includingbiographies, trial excerpts and commentary, letters and other documents. English translations and transcriptions of the original languages provided. Hundred Years War: Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orleans In the marketplace within the gray walls of Rouen, Normandy, on May 30, 1431, in the shadows of the cathedral and guild shops, a harsh spectacle held the attention of the populace. A 19-year-old peasant girl was to be burned at the stake. A sign declared her Jehanne, called la Pucelle, liar, pernicious, seducer of the people, diviner, superstitious, blasphemer of God, presumptuous, misbelieving the faith of Jesus Christ, braggart, idolater, cruel, dissolute, invoker of devils, apostate, schismatic and heretic. To many in the crowd, however, she was the innocent would-be rescuer of France from a century of English invaders. Unwittingly, the English were bestowing upon her a martyrdom that would haunt them for the rest of their numbered days on French soil. Saint Joan of Arcs Trials Full range of trials and testimony and documents. Gendercide Watch: European Witch-Hunts For three centuries of early modern European history, diverse societies were consumed by a panic over alleged witches in their midst. Witch-hunts, especially in Central Europe, resulted in the trial, torture, and execution of tens of thousands of victims, about three-quarters of whom were women. Arguably, neither before nor since have adult European women been selectively targeted for such largescale atrocities. Witchcraft Craze History How many died The Decline of Witch Trials In 1684, Alice Molland was sent to the gallows in Exeter and became the last witch to be executed in England. Scotland closed its account with Janet Horne in 1722 while trials wound down across Europe. However, it would not be until 1782 that the last witch to be legally executed met her fate at Glarus in Switzerland. But by the late 17th century witch trials were already reasonably rare occurrences even in the same localities where, in the earlier part of that century, the greatest hunts had taken place. Witch trials only became common during the Renaissance and the fiercest hunts took place in the 1620s and 1630s in German speaking areas. Contrary to popular belief, they were not a phenomenon of the Middle Ages. Although magical belief and practice were just as common during this earlier period, they did not often lead to trials, let alone executions. Medieval and Renaissance Marriage: Theory and Customs General overview of Christian wedding customs in Western Europe during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Art Slides of Women Artists Medieval Women The attitude toward women in medieval times, particularly held by the Church, was that they were inferior to men. Generally, women were taught that they should be meek and obedient to their fathers and husbands. In reality, medieval women had a lot of responsibility and were not at all inferior to men in terms of daily effort. Most worked and did not stay at home. Many toiled alongside their families in the fields, and some were employed in workshops or were trades-women. ANGLO-SAXON WOMEN: MORE THAN FRITHUWEBBAS As Christine Fell, author of Women in Anglo-Saxon England, astutely points out, we cannot assume that Anglo - Saxon England was a uniform, unchanging society from its inception in the fifth century to its demise in 1066. The laws of different time periods and areas varied greatly, and nowhere is this more true than in the case of laws pertaining to women. Yet laws concerning the rights of women were in existence from the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period, and it is on the basis of these sometimes widely varying laws that we know something about the status of women in Anglo-Saxon England. Excelente artigo. Brothels, Baths and Babes - Prostitution in the Byzantine Holy Land Free prostitution, institutionalized prostitution, brothels, regulation, actresses, the poor, recruiting, syphillis, sin, contraception. As a result of a chain of false logic, sexual repression dictated by the Church Fathers led to eroticism per se at the hands of prostitutes. Whilst controlled procreative sexuality was kept harnessed at home, pleasure blossomed amongst the harlots. The Midrash Genesis Rabbah (23.2) explained that at the time of the Great Flood, a man used to marry two women, one to bear him children, and another for sexual intercourse only. The latter took a cup of roots to render herself sterile and was accustomed to keep company with him dressed like a mistress. Is this not reminiscent of Apollodoros triad amputated of the pallake - the concubine Had values therefore not changed despite the advent of Judaeo-Christian civilisation In fact, values had changed, but in this particular context for the worse. Frankness had given way to prudish dishonesty displayed both by Rabbinic Judaism and Patristic Christianity. Such puritanism is surely to blame for the proliferation of Byzantine prostitution and in its trail the increase in numbers of abandoned children. The bad faith shared by Augustine and Jerome on the matter of prostitution encouraged prostitution in exactly the same way that the Victorian brothel was, according to Michel Foucault, the offshoot of bourgeois puritanism. Excelente artigo. The Life and Works of Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179) Rich and exuberant, the life of Hildegard von Bingen, the eminent 12th century scholar. The power of her presence permeates each web page. Visionary, mystic, poet, musician naturalist, healer, theologian - the Rhineland nun. Genuine renaissance woman long before there was a renaissance. Hildegards immense contributions included books, herbal cures, poetry as well as innovative chants. Convents in the Middle Ages Brief article. Homosexuality in the Viking Age The Viking Age shows clearly that the Vikings had words (and therefore mental constructs and concepts) of same-sex activity. However since the needs of agriculturalpastoral living require reproduction not only to work the farm but also to provide support for the parent in old age, it was expected that no matter what ones affectional preferences were that each individual would marry and reproduce. How was homosexuality viewed in the Viking Age Norse terminology, laws, cultural practices of homosexual acts, lesbianism, literature regarding Norse insults, pre - and post Christian attitudes, manliness hierarchies. Isabella d Este (1473-1539, Patroness) True heroine of the Renaissance. Brief introduction to vibrant and alluring Isabella d Este. Isabellas accomplishments as a musician expressed through her utilization of the writings of Plato and Aristotle to shape her musical knowledge and composition. These preferences may have contributed to the creation of the viola Artist sketch of Isabella. MANTOVA Isabella d Este Renaissance women were to marry properly, be a proper wife to their husbands and provide proper male heirs. Many of these renaissance women were not refined or cultured, but Isabella dEste was not one of these women. Brief narrative regarding Isabella and her patronage of the arts, including her impact on poets, artists and musicians. Promotion of her many new ideas regarding the traditional role of women are among her significant accomplishments. Margery Kempe (ca.1373-1438) One of the earliest autobiographies in English literature was that of Margery Kempe, religious mystic. Daughter of a mayor of Lynn, she married John Kempe in 1393 and bore 14 children before beginning a series of pilgrimages to Jerusalem, Rome, Germany, and Spain in 1414. Illiterate, she dictated her autobiography to scribes. Famous for her hysterical crying during church services and her contemporary use of language to describe her ecstatic and intimate visions. Quite a character Life, book exerpts, articles, resources. Good music Medieval and Renaissance Weddings - Extensive, Fascinating Notions of Gender in the Middle Ages: Myth vs. Reality What was the predominant image of women and womens place in medieval society A rather sexist or misogynistic view--by twentieth century standards of course--was prevalent among learned clerics. The writings of the theologian Thomas Aquinas typify this view. But although the religious of Europes abbeys and universities dominate the written record of the period, Thomistic sexism was not the only view of womens proper role. Fascinating research study: Any 20th century ideas of wholesale female oppression in the middle ages are relativist myths which serve to glamorize the modern period rather than describe historical reality. Women Artists in the Middle Ages Good list. Although there were many significant women artists in the MA, Much of the works completed by Medieval women have not even been descovered yet. Because of their name changes due to marriage and the delilberate disappearance of their signatures on works by pompous men, much of their recognition goes unclaimed. This is such a shame. Because of such barriers, finding information on women artists in the Middle Ages can be quite a task. They did not even achieve major international reputations until the mid-sixteenth century. Here are Slides. And here is another good summary . Women Knights in the Middle Ages Were there women knights in the Middle Ages Initially I thought not, but further research yielded surprising answers. There were two ways anyone could be a knight: by holding land under a knights fee, or by being made a knight or inducted into an order of knighthood. There are examples of both cases for women. A FEW WARS AND THE MILITARY The Hundred Years War History Page Images of kings and Dukes involved. Hostility between France and England erupted in 1337 when Edward III of England refused homage to France which sparked messy feud between England and France for 100 years. Timeline for the Hundred Years War The Hundred Years War Overview. The Hundred Years War, lasting from 1337 until 1453, was a defining time for the history of both England and France. The war started in May 1337 when King Philip VI of France attempted to confiscate the English territories in the duchy of Aquitaine (located in Southwestern France). It ended in July 1453 when the French finally expelled the English from the continent (except for Calais). The Hundred Years War was a series of chevauchees (plundering raids), sieges and naval battles interspersed with truces and uneasy peace. Economic considerations, political ties and claims, and military considerations. Causes, results. Medieval Life and the Hundred Years War - More Than You Ever Wanted to Know The Maid of Orleans From the BBC. Detailed biography of Joan of Arc. Brief background of the situation for France. Joans voices, her inspiration and help in the fight for Orleans, her condemnation and burning as a witch, and her sainting and memory. Medieval Sourcebook: Jean Froissart: On The Hundred Years War (1337-1453) Translation of an original source. Excerpts from The Chronicles of Froissart describing the Battle of Crecy, the Battle of Poitiers, and the sacking of the city of Limoges. The Grey Company Trebuchet Page Remarkable historic Trebuchet illustrations, specific photos and details on how to build one. All anyone would want to know about a Trebuchet. Formidable Siege Engines Shows how a trebuchet works, with details on the sling release. Great scale model of a trebuchet - a medieval siege engine. The real size of these things is stunning - 30 feet high at the shoulder - and full size replicas are capable of hurling pianos. How to Make Maile Armour The English Longbow The longbow is a weapon that revolutionized Medieval combat. In the hands of skilled archers, hundreds of thousands of arrows could rain down on an opposing force with severe consequences. In many battles, archer armies that were outnumbered by as much as 8 to 1 accomplished kill ratios of 1000s to 1. Yes, thousands of the enemy dead per one dead archer. Such was the case at the Battle of Crecy in 1346. The longbow helped bind England together throughout most of the Middle Ages. The history and stories of the longbow are rich and wonderful. So draw back your desk chair and loose yourself into the realm of the longbow. POPES, SCHISMS, INQUISITIONS THE CHURCH The Avignon Papacy Could there be two popes at the same time YES Site examines underlying events leading to the relocation of the popes residence to Avignon (1305-1378) and the Great Schism (1378-1417) that follows. The Avignon Papacy 1305-1378 How did the popes end up in Avignon and how did they finally get back to Rome The Beginning of the Medieval Period The Church as the key to the integration of cultures and the dominant institution during the Middle Ages. Church assumes many political responsibilities giving more power to Popes, Bishops, and church leaders. Out of the growth of the church came two new institutions for the forwarding of learning and knowledge: the monastery and the cathedral. Feudalism, the political and military system. Manoralism, the economic foundation for feudalism. Innocent III and the Great Schism The reign of Innocent III as Pontiff in Western Christendom, and the tragedy of the great schism between Eastern and Western Christians as a lasting consequence of the Fourth Crusade. Citta - A Tour of the Vatican City - Important Christendom Site Gender and the Medieval Beguines The Beguines of northern Europe have been called the first womens movement in Christian history. This group of religiously dedicated laywomen, who took no permanent vows, followed no prescribed rule, supported themselves by manual labor, interacted with the world, and remained celibate, flourished in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries - a time when the Church had defined two legitimate roles for pious women: cloistered nun and keepers at home. With their freedom of movement, economic independence and spiritual creativity, the Beguines carved out an unusually expansive - and controversial - niche for female religious expression. SOCIETY OF JESUS Generals of the Society On July 2, 1558, they elected Diego Lainez as the second General of the Society. Reveals history regarding Ignatiuss successor. To witness Jesuit politics in action, here it is. Society of Jesus: What is it A religious order founded by Saint Ignatius Loyola. Designated by him The Company of Jesus to indicate its true leader and its soldier spirit, the title was Latinized into Societas Jesu in the Bull of Paul III approving its formation and the first formula of its Institute (Regimini militantis ecclesia, 27 Sept. 1540). The term Jesuit (of fifteenth-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the society in reproach (1544-52), and was never employed by its founder, though members and friends of the society in time accepted the name in its good sense. INQUISITION AND HERESIES - SEE INQUISTION UNDER BAD THINGS LEADERS - MYTH AND REALITY EUROPEAN ROYALS AND THEIR DESTINIES Alexander Palace, home of the last Tsar. Tour the Palace Parade Rooms, rooms of Nickolas II, Rooms of Aleksandra, childrens rooms, palace treasures, Faberge, the palace today, history of the characters in the story. Faberge Eggs Collection Not your average Easter egg A cool site offering fantastic images of the infamous Faberge Eggs. Easter eggs, the age-old symbol of Resurrection and New Life took on a whole new meaning with the introduction of the first of 49 - the Imperial Easter Egg. Faberge, the acclaimed Master by the Goldsmiths in France, was the most famous court jeweler in history - primarily to the Tsars Alexander III and Nikolai II of Russia. The eggs were lavished of design, workmanship, and mechanism. each with mechanical devices (inside) which would puzzle the skills of a most expert watchmaker, containing a series of surprises wrought in gold and platinum, precious gems and enamel. Truly amazing depiction of these beautiful eggs with good resolution. You can even send your own personal Faberge e-post card Worth the effort - even if the Sponsor can be annoying at times Joans Favourite Royals Descriptions of the lives of various royals, focusing primarily on absurdity, tragedy, scandal, and blood relations. Favourite books, novels, and magazines about royalty as well. The Official British Monarch Page - Formal, official Web Site. The Unofficial British Royalty Family Page Seems to have everything News, links to articles with news about the British Royal family, line of succession to the British Throne, chat facility, links to other royalty pages, speeches by British royalty, royal celebrations, geneology. Victorias Dark Secrets We particularly liked The Bad Blood of the Hannovers, and The Bleeding Sickness, the latter which details the scourge of hemophelia passed through Europe. The marriage of Victoria and Albert marked the beginning of hemophilia in the British royal line that would eventually infect most of the royal houses of Europe, earning the title of the royal disease. ART AND LITERATURE ART FROM BYZANTIUM TO THE AGE OF ABSOLUTISM Early Medieval Art Excellent array. A Medieval Mystery: Can You Decode the Dark Secrets of this Cartoon It is a cartoon from 1233 during the reign of King Henry III. Its a detailed, complex cartoon and it is a bit of a mystery. New York Carver Museum Gothic amp medieval art amp sculpture online.. Gothic Painting Informative Page from the Web Museum, Paris DScriptorium Devoted to collecting, storing and distributing digital images of Medieval manuscripts ( D is for Digital). Ótimo. Web Gallery of Art Virtual museum and searchable database of European painting and sculpture of the Gothic, Renaissance Early Medieval Art Go to Middle Ages General. Wonderful array. Images of Medieval Art and Architecture Click away and enjoy. The Art of the Book in the Middle Ages Rich illustrations. Before the invention of mechanical printing, books were handmade objects, treasured as works of art and as symbols of enduring knowledge. Indeed, in the Middle Ages, the book becomes an attribute of God. Every stage in the creation of a medieval book required intensive labor, sometimes involving the collaboration of entire workshops. Parchment for the pages had to be made from the dried hides of animals, cut to size and sewn into quires inks had to be mixed, pens prepared, and the pages ruled for lettering. A scribe copied the text from an established edition, and artists might then embellish it with illustrations, decorated initials, and ornament in the margins. The most lavish medieval books were bound in covers set with enamels, jewels, and ivory carvings. Illumination in the Late Middle Ages Amazing: Prior to the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg around 1450-1455, the process of producing and multiplying copies of books was strictly manual and performed by skilled craftsmen. the scribe calligraphed the text and various artists or specialized artisans decorated the manuscript. The two essential phases of writing and illuminating were preceded by a number of preliminary steps. the preparation of the parchment (the most common material then in use, though it was rivaled in the late Middle Ages by paper, a less expensive option) the cutting of the sheet into double leaves or bifolia which were then folded to the desired format the gathering of a number of these double leaves into a quire (the most common type was the quaternio . a gathering of four double leaves) and the ruling of the leaf (with drypoint or ink) to calibrate the writing surface. A final step, after the manuscript had been copied and illustrated, consisted of joining the quires together within a protective cover or binding. Books took time to produce and the end product was invariably costly. Sales and distribution were handled by a bookseller or stationer, who from the late thirteenth century onward played a vital role in book production. Important Glossary of Medieval Art and Architecture Medieval Art Artists, Painting, Illumination, Stained Glass, Sculpture, Tapestries, Cartography, Images. Possibly the best overall Medieval Art site with significant links. For the art lover, days could be spent here. LITERATURE Literature and the Middle Time Somewhere between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance there was a middle time. Special essay. Addresses time as a conceptual and historical problem, in literary, religious, and practical terms. Valuable information on the origins of French literature, how the Middle Ages got its name, theological and everyday measurements of time, and the relationships of myth and fiction to genealogy in the founding of aristocratic families and feudal dynasties. Anthology of Middle English Literature Wonderful anthologyy including Essays, Articles, Medieval Plays and Lyrics. Includes literary works and brief biographies of Chaucer, Gawain, Langland, Norwich, Kempe, Malory, and Everyman. A treasure of medieval literature. Introductions accompanied by medieval music that set the mood for perusing these fascinating personalities. Canterbury Tales The Middle English Collection at the Electronic Text Center. Text-based. Downloadable Chaucerian works in Old English. Features The Canterbury Tales. Links to Online Library and Middle English text search engine. Allows wordphrase searching. Other Middle English authors works. Links to classic humanities texts in twelve languages. Illustrations, maps, images, art. Parts restricted to U of VA students - alternative public links given. Canterbury Tales Project - Major Research Site Decameron Brilliant insight into medieval life, the Decameron by Bocaccio is a collection of 100 wonderfully human stories shared in 10 days by 10 people escaping the plague in 14th C. Florence. Contemporaneous maps and societal descriptions place the stories in clear historical context. High quality literary site. EAWC Essay: Literature and the Middle Time Helpful essay addressing the time between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance, when the French language was born. How the Middle Ages got its name. Origins of French literature. The Renaissance invented the Middle Ages in order to define itself the Enlightenment perpetuated them in order to admire itself and the Romantics revived them in order to escape from themselves. In their widest ramifications the Middle Ages thus constitute one of the most prevalent cultural myths of the modern world. The Planets and Their Children. A Blockbook of Medieval Popular Astrology 15th C. Europe believed strongly in the influence of planets. Blockbooks, printed entirely from wood blocks, were the paperback of the masses. Authentic images combined with illuminating translations give the viewer real taste of medieval popular culture. THE INVALUABLE SOURCES SOURCE S, TIMELINES, MANUSCRIPTS, BOOKS Hill Monastic Manuscript Library One of most comprehensive sites in world of medieval and renaissance sources. Global information network for organized access to Web resources in medieval studies. Medieval texts, current research. Reference point for all medieval studies. HyperHistory On-Line Fantasic site for those who need to learn through visualization. Excellent time-line from 100-1900 and historical maps with clickable links to important information on events of the period. Recomend printing time-line and keeping it handy. Malaspina Great Books Home Page Medieval Sourcebook Extensive sourcebook for students, faculty, scholars, just plain fascinated folks. A section of the Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies . Sources are meant to take the place of expensive published sourcebooks students often required to buy. Fairly short classroom sized extracts, and the full documents. Hard to find any area not fully documented. NetSERF - The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources Remarkable site. Over 1000 links sorted by catagory and presented in outline format. Research center and the wonderful random medieval site button. ORB: Online Medieval and Classical Library Academic site, written and maintained by medieval scholars for the benefit of their fellow instructors and serious students. All articles judged by at least two peer reviewers. Encyclopedia of original essays, medieval sourcebook, syllabi, links. MOVIES - Middle Ages, Renaissance, Dark Ages The Middle Ages, Chivalry and Knighthood Medieval Sites on the Web ON TO MEDIEVAL PART II From the Reformation and Forward to the 19th Century Click here to PART II REFORMATION COUNTER REFORMATION MAJOR DISTANCE LEARNING ONLINE COLLEGE COURSES The Special Western Civilization Series COURSE CENTERS AND WEB INTERNET BOOKS History 4A - WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE ANCIENT WORLD Act I: From Prehistory to the Fall of Rome (Fall, Winter, Spring, Summer) History 4B - WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE MEDIEVAL, RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION WORLD Act II: From the Fall of Rome to the French Revolution (Winter ) History 4C - WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE MODERN WORLD Act III: From The French Revolution to the Fall of the Berlin Wall (Fall, Spring, Summer) 4 Quarter Units Each. Identical in Content, Rigor, Requirements, Assignments, Exams, to On-Campus College Course, fully articulated with all California Universities. The Online Course Information Site and Summary Syllabus for History 4A. Western Civilization: The Ancient World - Act I The Online Course Information Site and Summary Syllabus for History 4B. Western Civilization: The Medieval Renaissance World - Act II The Online Course Information Site and Summary Syllabus for History 4C. Western Civilization: The Modern World - Act IIIFor Registration and ProcessCourse Information, Contact Global Access Courses at the FOOTHILL COLLEGE SITE. Internet Book and Site Created, Designed, Executed By Dr. KF, Professor of HistoryPolitical Science and the online Foohill College students, March 1999. Ongoing renewal. Author, Hitlers Death Camps: The Sanity of Madness . Full Copyright, Dr. KF Internet Books and Sites on loan to Foothill College for Web Courses. I created this site for folks in the Web World who enjoy history as much as I do: the public, history buffs, families, students of all ages, elementary and high school teachers, university faculty. We have tried to be intensely aware of others work and respect copyrights. We dont think we have violated anyones work - and only highlighted the special efforts of others. If anyone feels to the contrary, contact me and we will change it immediately. Also I would like to have the name of the artist who designed those 3 stunning major category graphics - to give you special recognition - if you are out there somewhere I wanted this site to be available for public use, personally or in a classroom - and as a resource for teachers at all levels. Thus no passwords are required. I only ask that if you refer your students to this site, that you credit us properly for the work this entailed.